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INTRODUCTION
  1. Harijan, 1 May 1947.
  2. Quoted in Tendulkar, Mahatma, vol. 8, p. 111.
  3. Bondurant, Conquest of Violence, p. 146.
  4. Harijan, 24 April 1939.
  5. Young India, 23 March 1921.
  6. Gandhi, An Autobiography, P. 266.
  7. Ibid.
  8. Kumarappa, foreword to Gandhi, Nonviolent Resistance, P. iii.
  9. Gandhi pointed out that there is a "distinction between a policy and creed.A policy may be
    changed a creed cannot.But either is as good as the other whilst it is held.”Young India,30 July 1931.
  10. See Harijan, 12 November 1938 and 25 August 1940.
  11. See King, Stride Towards Freedom, PP. 96-7.
  12. Harijan, 5 September 1936.
  13. Harijan, 28 January 1939.
  14. Ibid.
  15. Quoted in Pyarelal, A Pilgrimage for Peace, p. 90.
  16. Ibid.
  17. See Gandhi, Satyagraha in South Africa, p. xiv; and Harijan, 8 September 1940 and 14 March 1936.
  18. Indian Opinion, 22 February 1908.
  19. See Young India, 11 August 1920, 23 October 1924, 13 August 1925, 22 November 1928, and 20 March 1930; Harijan, 10 December 1938 and 28 January 1939.
  20. Harijan, 2 August 1942.
  21. Young India, 8 January 1925.
  22. Young India, 13 February 1930.
  23. Harijan, 30 September 1939. This explanation was an answer to a Congressman who was inquiring as to Gandhi's attitude to the Second World War. Gandhi noted that he could no longer be the "self appointed recruiting sergeant" that he had been during the last war, but, nevertheless, his sympathies were entirely with the Allies.
  24. While it should be remembered that autobiographical writings have a notorious tendency to be inaccurate, they do indicate the way their authors want to be perceived. As this work is concerned with Gandhi's thought, rather than Gandhi the man, his autobiography and Satyagraha in South Africa will be used extensively
  25. Quoted in Rao, "Gandhi the Writer", p.121.
  26. Harijan, 24 September 1938.
  27. Gandhi, An Autobiography, p. 53.
  28. Rao, "Gandhi the Writer", p. 122.
  29. Young India, 2 July 1925.
  30. Quoted in Easwaran, Gandhi the Man, p. 112.
  31. Sharp, Gandhi as a Political Strategist, p. 2.
  32. See Young India, 18 February 926, 2 August 1828; and Harijan, 3 June 1939.
  33. Quoted in Iyer, The Moral and Political Thought of Mahatma Gandhi, p. 94.
  34. See Harijan, 18 August 1946, 22 June 1947; and Shukla, Conversations of Gandhi, p.36.
  35. Young India, 5 March 1925.
  36. Morris-Jones, Politics Mainly Indian, p. 69. In a letter to Will Durant Gandhi confessed that "religion and morality are, for me, synonymous terms”. Durant, On the Meaning of Life, p. 84.
  37. See Young India, 31 December 1931; and Doshi, Gandhi's Moral Individual in an Immoral Society, p. 103.
  38. See Young India, 24 June 1926; and Harijan, 2 November 1936.
  39. Harijan, 2 November 1936.
  40. Reich, The Function of the Orgasm, pp. 164-5.
  41. For an examination of sexuality in Hindu culture see Lannoy, The Speaking Tree, pp. 113-23. Cf. Seshagiri Rao, Mahatma Gandhi and Sexual Morality, pp. 506-7.
  42. See Gandhi, An Autobiography, pp. 7-9, 24-6.
  43. See Gandhi, From Yeravda Mandir, pp. 8-9; Desai, The Diary of Mahadev Desai, p. 312; and Harijan, 15 June 1947. Gandhi included impure thoughts and anger as breaches of brahmacharya. See Harijan, 23 July 1938.
  44. Erikson, Gandhi’s Truth, p. 251.
  45. Bondurant, Conquest of Violence, p. 12. This is further illustrated when, speaking of vegetarianism, Gandhi maintained that “Meat eating is a sin for me. Yet, for another person, who has always lived on meat and never seen anything wrong in it to give it up simply in order to copy me, will be a sin.” Harijan, 9 April 1946.
  46. Gandhi, From Yeravda Mandir, p. 7.
  47. Cenker, “Gandhi and Creative Conflict”, p. 166.
Chapter One: THE RESOLUTION OF CONFLICT
  1. Fink, “Some Conceptual Difficulties in the Theory of Social Conflict”, p. 413.
  2. See Deutsch, The Resolution of Conflict, pp. 8-9; and Simmel, Conflict and the Web of Group-Affiliations, p.15.
  3. Coser, The Function of Social Conflict, pp. 154-5.
  4. See Deutsch, “Conflicts: Productive and Destructive”, p. 7; Nicholson, Conflict Analysis, p. 2; Aubert, “Competition and Dissensus”, p. 26; Likert and Liken, New Ways of Managing Conflict, p. 7; and Curie, Making Peace, p. 3.
  5. Deutsch, "Conflicts; Productive and Destructive”, p. 8.
  6. Fink, "Some Conceptual Difficulties”, p. 456.
  7. Ibid.
  8. North, "Conflict: Political Aspects”, p. 226.
  9. Le Vine distinguishes five forms of behaviour that are indicative of a conflict situation: physical aggression, public verbal dispute, covert verbal aggression, breach of expectation and avoidance. Le Vine, “Anthropology and the Study of Conflict: An Introduction”.
  10. Deutsch, “Conflicts: Productive and Destructive”, p. 10.
  11. Fitzgerald, et al., "A Preliminary Discussion of the Definitional Phase of the Dispute Process", pp. 17.
  12. Nicholson, Conflict Analysis, p. 2.
  13. Swingle (ed.), The Structure of Conflict, p. ix.
  14. Swingle, "Dangerous Games", p. 267. Although "loss of face" seems to play an important part in the conduct of many conflicts its role changes from conflict type to conflict type, for example in international politics "face" relates to the credibility of power,while in interpersonal conflicts it represents an ego defence.
  15. Quoted in Swingle, "Dangerous Games", p. 267.
  16. Rapoport, Fights, Games and Debates, p. 10.
  17. Felstiner, "Avoidance as Dispute Processing", p. 695.
  18. Ibid., p. 697.
  19. Galanter, "Justice in Many Rooms", p. 3.
  20. Aubert, "Courts and Conflict Resolution".
  21. Chambliss and Seidman, Law, Order and Power, pp. 34-5. This view has been challenged by some authors who claim that it merely reflects a "noble savage" ideology in respect of rural communities. See Start and Yngvesson, "Scarcity and Disputing"; and Danzig and Lowy, "Everyday Disputes and Mediation in the United States".
  22. Unger, Law in Modern Society, pp. 192'3,202-3.
  23. Aubert, "Competition and Dissensus', pp. 30-1.
  24. In business matters courts are often routinely used to end conflicts. A court order backed by force can be the agreed way to settle disputed transactions, with all parties happy to accept the outcome. The costs are payed by the company out of profits and perhaps "passed on" to the consumer.
  25. See Komesar, "Towards an Economic Theory of Conflict Choice", pp. 5-7; Aubert, "Courts and Conflict Resolution", p. 46; and Aubert, "Law as a Way of Resolving Conflict", p. 282.
  26. Starr and Yngvesson, "Scarcity and Disputing", p. 553.
  27. Iklé, "Negotiations", p. 117.
  28. Gulliver, Disputes and Negotiations, p. 78.
  29. Ibid., p. 50.
  30. Ibid., p. 6.
  31. Vickers, Freedom in a Rocking Boat, p. 151.
  32. Deutsch, "Conflicts: Productive and Destructive~, p. 10.
  33. Ibid., p. 9.
  34. Ibid., pp. 23-4.
  35. Liken and Likert, New Ways of Managing Conflict, p. 59.
  36. Pruitt, "Methods for Resolving Differences of Interest", p. 134.
  37. Wilson and Bixenstine, "Forms of Social Control...", pp. 338-58.
  38. Brown, "The Effects of the Need...", p. 119.
  39. Siegel and Fouraker, Bargaining and Group Decision Making, p. 100.
  40. Deutsch, The Resolution of Conflict, p. 140.
  41. Deutsch, "Conflicts: Productive and Destructive", p. 30.
  42. Bartos, "Determinants and Consequences of Toughness”, p. 65.
  43. Ibid.
  44. Pruitt, "Methods for Resolving.. "p. 134.
  45. Bartos, "Determinants and Consequences of Toughness", p. 65.
  46. Pruitt, "Methods for Resolving…….”,p. 139
  47. Ibid., p. 135.
  48. Deutsch, “Conflicts: Productive and Destructive”, p. 25.
  49. See Pruitt, “Methods for Resolving.…., p. 136; and Deutsch and Krauss, “Effects of Threat upon Interpersonal Bargaining”, p 188.
  50. Pilisuk and Skolnick conclude from their experiments that there is "support for the effect of honest prior announcement of moves in interaction with conciliatory steps as roductive of cooperative behaviour". 'Pilisuk and Skolnick, "Inducing Trust”, p. 133. See also Dentsch, The Resolution of Conflict, p. 352.
  51. Rapoport, Fights, Games and Debates, pp. 11, 286-7.
  52. Deutsch, "Conflicts: Productive and Destructive”, p. 15.
  53. Ibid., p. 14.
  54. Gouldner, "The Norm of Reciprocity”, p. 173.
  55. Ibid., p. 174.
  56. Pruitt, "Methods for Resolving...”, p. 151.
  57. Rapoport, Fights, Games and Debates, p. 291.
  58. Ibid., pp. 287-8.
  59. Ibid., p. 306.
  60. Deutsch, The Resolution of Conflict, p. 388.
  61. Spiegel, "The Resolution of Role Conflict Within the Family”.
  62. Likert and Likert, New Ways of Managing Conflicts, p. 69.
  63. Curle, Making Peace, p. 274.
Chapter Two: SATYAGRAHA: THE GANDHIAN APPROACH TO CONFLICT RESOLUTION
  1. Denting, Revolution and Equilibrium, p. 211
  2. Gregg, The Power of Nonviolence, p. 109.
  3. Naess, Gandhi and Group Conflict, p. 32.
  4. Young India, 23 March 1921.
  5. Erikson, Gandhi's Truth, p. 412.
  6. Sharp, The Politics of Nonviolent Action, p. 706. For a detailed analysis of "accommodation” and "nonviolent coercion” see pp. 733-55.
  7. Pelton, The Psychology of Nonviolence, p. 224.
  8. Satyagraha will not always be successful. As with all other methods of conflict resolution it will have its share of failures, however Gandhi firmly believed that the greater the degree of nonviolence exhibited by the satyagrahi the greater the chances of success. In the case of the theoretically totally nonviolent person it would invariably succeed – “with no rancour left behind, and in the end the enemies.., converted into friends”. Harijan, 12 November 1938.
  9. Gandhi, An Autobiography, p. 230.
  10. Bondurant, Conquest of Violence, pp. vi-vii, 192, 195.
  11. Sheean, Lead, Kindly Light, p. 118.
  12. Harijan, 25 March 1939, 29 April 1939, and Young India, 19 March 1925.
  13. Horsburgh, Mahatma Gandhi, p. 36. See also Horsburgh, Nonviolence and Aggression, p. 161.
  14. Harijan, 15 April 1933. Conversion of an opponent may take a far greater time than bringing a conflict to a head through violence. Attempts may be met by unresponsiveness. Therefore patience and understanding are two important qualities that need be cultivated. For further discussion of this topic see Horsburgh “Nonviolence and Impatience”, Gandhi Marg.
  15. Bondurant, "Satyagraha Versus Duragraha”, P. 101. Gandhi, p. 101
  16. Adapted from Nasess, Gandhi and Group Conflict, PP. 70-84.
  17. Harijan, 25 March 1939.
  18. Naess, Gandhi and Group Conflict, p. 104.
  19. Harijan, 11 March 1939.
  20. Pelton, The Psychology of Nonviolence, P. 86.
  21. Ibid., p. 221.
  22. See Shridharani, War Without Violence, P. 211.
  23. Young India, 19 March 1925.
  24. Young India, 23 September 1926, and 9 February 1921.
  25. Gregg, "The Best Solver of Conflicts". For a further discussion of such “therapeutic” trust (i.e. “trust which aims at increasing the trustworthiness of those in whom it is reposed”) see Horsburgh "The Ethics of Trust."
  26. Young India, 4 June 1925.
  27. See Pelton, The Psychology of Nonviolence, pp. 22-5.
  28. Young India, 26 December 1924.
  29. Young India, 6 February 1930.
  30. See Bose, Studies in Gandhism, p. 115; Gandhi, Satyagraha in South Africa, p. 146; Young India,16 April 1931; and Fischer, A Week with Gandhi, P. 102.
  31. Bondurant, Conquest of Violence, pp. 197, 220. According to Gandhi, however, "essentials" or "eternal principles" were to be defended unto death. Harijan, 5 September 1936.
  32. Naess, Gandhi and Group Conflict, P. 104.
  33. Horsburgh, Nonviolence and Aggression, P. 36.
  34. Bose, Studies in Gandhism, P. 116.
  35. Gandhi, Satyagraha in South Africa, p. 247.
  36. Naess, Gandhi and Group Conflict, p. 104.
  37. Gandhi, Satyagraha in South Africa, p. 295.
  38. Adapted from Naess, Gandhi and the Nuclear Age, pp. 60-2.
  39. Bondurant, Conquest of Violence, p. 11.
  40. Gregg, The Power of Nonviolence, P.
  41. Elsewhere Gregg points out that this induced loss of self-confidence is not to be interpreted in the sense that the opponent becomes despondent - "Nonviolent resistance does not break the opponent's will but alters it; does not destroy his confidence, enthusiasm and hope but transfers them to a finer purpose." Ibid., P- 76.
  42. Young India, 8 October 1925.
  43. Young India, 4 August 1920.
  44. Gregg, The Power of Nonviolence, P. 131.
  45. Harijan, 10 June 1939.
  46. Harijan, 16 May 1936.
  47. Gandhi's paraphrase of Ruskin's Unto This Last in The Selected Works, vol. IV, p. 46; Harijan, 11 August 1940, and 5 May 1946.
  48. Bondurant, Conquest of Violence, p. 194.
  49. Gandhi, Satyagraha in South Africa, p. 147.
  50. Kelley and Stahelski, “Social Interaction Basis……”,p. 89.
  51. Ibid.
  52. Quoted in Iyer, The Moral and Political Thought of Mahatma Gandhi, p. 156.
  53. Satya means mote man a narrow interpretation of the English word – it includes the connotations "real, sincere, existent, pure, good, effectual, valid”. Monier-Williams,Sanskrit - English Dictionary, quoted in Iyer, op. cit., p. 150.
  54. See Harijan, 21 September 1934; Desai, The Diary of Mahadev Desai, p. 249; and Young India, 31 December 1931.
  55. Letter to P. G. Mathew, 9 July 1932, Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi (CWMG), vol. L, p. 175.
  56. Iyer, The Moral and Political Thought of Mahatma Gandhi, p. 157.
  57. Young India, 4 December 1924.
  58. Gandhi, An Autobiography, p. xiii.
  59. Erikson, Gandhi's Truth, p. 413
  60. Young India, 4 August 1920; Harijan, 24 November 1933; and Gandhi, God is Truth, pp. 33-4.
  61. Harijan, 24 November 1933, and Young India, 31 December 1931.
  62. Quoted in Tendulkar, Mahatma, vol. 1, p. 282.
  63. See Ruskin, "The Lamp of Truth', p. 64.
  64. Bok, Lying, pp. 13, 24-5.
  65. Harijan, 19 December 1936.
  66. Bok, Lying, p. 135-6.
  67. Quoted in Bhattacharyya, Evolution of the Political Philosophy of Gandhi, p. 295.
  68. Young India 16 February 1922.
  69. Gregg, The Power of Nonviolence, p. 140.
  70. Quoted in Desai, The Diary, p. 249.
  71. Quoted in Mahadevan (ed.), Truth and Nonviolence, p. 60. Shukla notes that of "Gandhi repeatedly asked men and women to appear as they are and never let it be said them that they 'are not what they seem'. This naturalness or absence of pose, too, was, in his view, a part of truthfulness". Shukla, Gandhi's View of Life,p. 3.
  72. Gandhi, From Yeravda Mandir, p. 6.
  73. Iyer, The Moral and Political Thought of Mahatma Gandhi, p. 249.
  74. Tolstoy, The Kingdom of God is Within You, p. 55.
  75. Adapted from Ellul, Violence, pp. 94-104.
  76. Harijan, 1 June 1947.
  77. Harijan, 20 October 1940.
  78. Ellul, Violence, p. 103-4.
  79. May, Power and Innocence, p. 96. Curle makes the important point that while "some may maintain that violence ennobles the perpetrator ....no one can say that in regard to the product of his violence – a man dead or maimed. If peace signifies a condition in which the potential evolution of each individual is more highly realized, then violence is its antithesis". Curle, Making Peace,p.200.
  80. May, Power and Innocence, pp. 187-8, 192-3.
  81. Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, pp. 18, 94.
  82. Young India, 11 August 1920.
  83. See also Deming, Revolution and Equilibrium, pp. 194-221.
  84. Harijan, 5 September 1936.
  85. Young India, 25 August 1920. Gandhi adds: "It is no nonviolence if we merely love those that love us. It is nonviolence only when we love those that hate us." From a private letter, dated 31 December 1934, quoted in Bose, Selections from Gandhi, p. 17.
  86. Harijan, 14 March 1936. St. Paul's definition states that "Love is patient and kind, it is not jealous or conceited or proud; love is not ill-mannered or selfish or irritable; love does not keep a record of wrongs; love is not happy with evil, but is happy with the truth. Love never gives up; and its faith, hope and patience never fail". 1 Corinthians 13:4-7.
  87. Gandhi, From Yeravda Mandir, p. 5.
  88. See Gandhi, Ashram Observances in Action, p. 39; Harijan, 5 May 1946, 9 April 1946, and 20 March 1937; and Dhawan, The Political Philosophy, p. 65.
  89. Buber, I and Thou, pp. 16-17.
  90. Ramana Murti, "Buber's Dialogue and Gandhi's Satyagraha”, p. 608.
  91. Eteki-Mboumoua in Mahadevan (ed.), Truth and Nonviolence, p. 135.
  92. Young India, 12 August 1926; Harijan, 12 October 1935, and 1 September 1940.
  93. Deming, Revolution and Equilibrium, p. 204.
  94. Harijan, 21 July 1940, 18 January 1942, 2 April 1938, and 6 May 1939.Besides humility nonviolence also requires enterprise. Gandhi notes: "In order to test ourselves we should learn to dare danger and death, mortify the flesh, and acquire the capacity to endure all manner of hardship.” Harijan, 1 September 1940.
  95. Dhawan, The Political Philosophy, p. 69. See also Lanza del Vasto, Warriors of Peace, pp. 23-4.
  96. Tolstoy, The Kingdom of God is Within You, p. 117.
  97. Bondurant, Conquest of Violence, p. 228.
  98. Young India, 19 March 1925; and Gandhi quoted in Sharp, The Politics of Nonviolent Action, p. 709.
  99. Pelton, The Psychology of Nonviolence, p. 143.
  100. Naess, Gandhi and Group Conflict, p. 85.
  101. Quoted in Dhawan, The Political Phil osophy, p. 143.
  102. Farson, "Indian Hate Lyric", p. 144.
  103. Young India, 11 August 1920, and 8 October 1925.
  104. Young India, 19 March 1925; see also Young India, 8 October 1929
  105. Erikson, Gandhi's Truth, pp. 242, 248-9.
  106. Gandhi, Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule, p. 79.
  107. Sharp, The Politics of Nonviolent Action, p. 709.
  108. Alinsky, Rules for Radicals, pp. 24, 38-9. See also Lewis, The Case Against Pacifism, pp. 23-41.
  109. Huxley, Ends and Means, p. 9.
  110. Gandhi, Hind Swaraj, p. 71; Young India, 17 July 1924, and Harijan, 11 February 1939.
  111. Gandhi, Satyagraha in South Africa, p. 306.
  112. Sheean, Lead, Kindly Light, p. 197.
  113. Huxley, Ends and Means, p. 25.
  114. Pelton, The Psychology of Nonviolence, P. 44.
  115. Huxley, Ends and Means, p. 138-9.
  116. Naess, Gandhi and the Nuclear Age, p. 59.
  117. The Amrita Bazar Patrika, 17 September 1933.
  118. See Gandhi's letter to Jawaharlal Nehru, dated 19 February 1922. CWMG, vol. XX, p. 435.
  119. Young India, 16 February 1922.
  120. Fischer, Gandhi, p. 71.
  121. See Horsburgh, Nonviolence and Aggression, pp. 49-51.
  122. Huxley, Ends and Means, p. 32.
  123. See Young India, 23 September 1926; Harijan, 23 July 1938, 25 March 1939; and Young India, 26 November 1931.
  124. See Horsburgh, Mahatma Gandhi, p. 33.
  125. Bondurant, Conquest of Violence, p. 9.
  126. Case, Non-Violent Coercion, p. 379.
  127. Shridharani, War Without Violence, p. 264.
  128. Naess, Gandhi and Group Conflict, p. 92.
  129. Young India, 30 September 1926; Harijan, 6 May 1933, and 25 January 1948.
  130. For an uncomplimentary analysis of Gandhi's fasts see Raman, What Does Gandhi Want? pp. 107-13.
  131. Harijan, 25 January 1948; Young India, 1 May 1924; and Harijan, 1 March 1939.
  132. Young India, 31 October 1929; 4 November 1926, 16June 1927, 31 October 1929; Harijan, 15 July 1939, 4 August 1946.
  133. Harijan, 27 October 1946 and 9 March 1940.
  134. Young India, 6June 1929; Gandhi, From Yeravda Mandir, p. 19; and Young India, 16 July 1931.
  135. Harijan, 2 April 1938; Gandhi, From Yeravda Mandir, p. 19; and Young India, 11 August 1920.
Chapter Three: INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT
  1. Harijan, 14 March 1936
  2. Horsburgh, Nonviolence and Aggression, p. 54.
  3. Lanza del Vasto, Warriors of Peace, pp. 8-9
  4. On the way that he handled being attacked at night by bandits, see Lanza del Vasto, ibid., pp. 35-9. Several other instances of individual nonviolent resistance overcoming hate and aggression are recorded in Sorokin, The Ways and Power of Love,pp. 48-58.
  5. Lanza del Vasto, Warriors of Peace, pp. 34-5.
  6. Pyarelal, Mahatma Gandhi, vol. II, p. 505.
  7. Lanza del Vasto, Warriors of Peace, pp. 6-7, 14.
  8. Tolstoy, The Kingdom of God is Within You, p. 39.
  9. Harijan, 20 July 1935; and Young India, 4 November 1926.
  10. Young India, 11 August 1920.
  11. Quoted in Dhawan, The Political Philosophy, p. 135.
  12. Naess, Gandhi and the Nuclear Age, p. 50.
  13. Gregg, The Power of Nonviolence, pp. 57, 152.
  14. Dhawan, The Political Philosophy, p. 135. See also Shridharani, War Without Violence, pp. 62-70.
  15. Perls, et al., Gestalt Therapy, p. 11.
  16. See Horsburgh, Nonviolence and Aggression, p. 54, for how introspection as tothe degree the faults we perceive in others are present within ourselves produces thelink between honesty and toleration.
  17. Lewin, Resolving Social Conflicts, p. 139.
  18. Gordon, P.E.T. Parent Effectiveness Training, pp. 153-9; and Gordon, T.E.T. Teacher Effectiveness Training, pp. 184-9.
  19. Gordon, P.E.T., pp. 159-63, 175-85; and Gordon, T.E.T., pp. 189-90, 201-9
  20. Gordon, P.E.T., pp. 115-19; Gordon, T.E.T., pp. 136-42; and Coover et al.,Resource Manual for a Living Revolution, pp. 91-3.
  21. Gordon, P.E.T., pp. 60-70; and Gordon, T.E.T., pp. 145-7.
  22. Gordon, P.E.T., pp. 26640; and Gordon, T.E.T., pp. 286-7, 306.
  23. Harijan, 27 July 1935.
Chapter Four: LEGAL AND INDUSTRIAL CONFLICTS
  1. Dhawan, The Political Philosophy, p. 256.
  2. Felstiner notes that generally courts "cost money and time, are slow and mystifying, and tiltedagainst the poor, the uninitiated and the occasional user".Where they fail to cope "much of the slack may be absorbed by avoidance".Felstiner, "Influences of Social Organisation on DisputeProcessing", pp. 85-6.
  3. It should be noted that many legal disputes are "one-off" affairs that do not result in future problems. In any case "A change of heart", according to Gandhi, "can never be brought about by law, it can only be effected through inner conversion. When such is accomplished then there is no longer any need of compulsive laws." Quoted in Bose, My Days with Gandhi, p. 144.
  4. Chambliss and Seidman, Law, Order and Power, p. 35.
  5. For an elaboration of these arguments and a Gandhian interpretation of how a lawyer, either in his role of defence counsel or prosecutor, should conduct a case, see Weber, "Legal Ethics / Gandhian Ethics".
  6. Gandhi, An Autobiography, p. 111.
  7. Ibid., p. 112.
  8. Gandhi, Hind Swaraj, pp. 54-5.
  9. Ibid., pp. 56-7.
  10. Merry, "Going to Court".
  11. The Community Justice Centre Project: a paper issued by the Co-ordinating Committee on Community Justice Centres, Department of the Attorney-General and of Justice, N.S.W. 1979.
  12. For criticisms of the community justice centre movement, see Tomasic, "Mediation as an Alternative to Adjudication".
  13. The Community Justice Centre Project, op. cit., p. 3. The function of the mediator has been summarised by Deutsch as:
    (1) "Helping the conflicting parties identify and confront the issues in conflict", which may have become obscured by rhetoric or the proliferation of issues.
    (2 )"Helping provide favorable circumstances and conditions for confronting the issues", by providing a neutral ground on which to conduct the conflict.
    (3) "Helping remove the blocks and distortions in the communication process so that mutual understanding may develop.”
    (4) "Helping establish such norms for rational interaction as mutual respect, open communication, the use of persuasion rather than coercion, and the desirability of reaching a mutually satisfying agreement."
    (5) "Helping determine what kinds of solutions are possible and making suggestions about possible solutions."
    (6)“Helping make a workable agreement acceptable to the parties in conflict” i.e. one where neither party “loses face.”
    (7) "Helping making the negotiations and the agreement that is arrived at seem prestigeful and attractive to interested audiences, especially the groups represented by the negotiators. "Deutsch, The Resolution of Conflict, pp.382-8.
  14. The Community Justice Centre Project, op. cit., p. 3.
  15. Harvey, The Theory and Practice of Civil Disobedience, p. 17.
  16. Young India, 23 July 1919.
  17. Gandhi entitled a small booklet, compiled from letters he wrote to members of his ashram from the Yeravda prison near Poona in 1930, From Yeravda Mandir. The word "mandir" means"temple”.
  18. Harijan, 3 June 1939.
  19. Young India, 23 March 1922.
  20. See Young India, 1 May 1924, 5 June 1924, 15 December 1921, 27 February 1930, and
    17 November 1921.
  21. Harijan, 13 February 1939.
  22. Desai, A Righteous Struggle, p. v.
  23. Harijan, 19 October 1935.
  24. Desai, A Righteous Struggle, p. vi.
  25. Diesing, "Bargaining Strategy...”, p. 369.
  26. Douglas, "The Peaceful Settlement...”, pp. 72-3.
  27. Hawke, The Resolution of Conflict, p. 53.
  28. Gandhi, Satyagraha in South Africa, p. 191.
  29. Douglas, "The Peaceful Settlement...', pp. 73, 79.
  30. Young India, 5 May 1920.
  31. Aziz, "Application Prospects of Gandhian Approach to Industrial Relations", p. 149.
  32. Young India, 5 May 1920.
  33. Harijan, 22 September 1946.
  34. See Appendix A: "Statement on Behalf of the Workers" in Desai, A Righteous Struggle, pp. 73-84.
  35. Based on a summary by Khandubhai Desai in Bose, Gandhian Technique and Tradition, p. 19.
  36. Quoted in Gandhi, Economic and Industrial Life and Relations, p. lxxxviii.
  37. Young India, 16 February 1921.
  38. Neither should violence be used against non-strikers (Young India, 16 February 1921) and this includes “blacklegs” or "scab” labour: "Strikers should not fight them but plead with them, tell them that theirs is a narrow policy and that they [the strikers] have the interest of the whole labour at heart. It is likely that they will not listen in which case they should be tolerated." Harijan, 7 November 1936.
  39. Young India,16 February 1921, 22 September 1921, and Harijan, 3 July 1937; and Gandhi, Economic and Industrial Life and Relations, p.c. The point, however, is to maintain a strike situation rather than opt for permanent alternative employment.The fact that the Workers can thus support themselves will put additional pressure - in the form of fear of permanently losing their workers – on the employers. See pamphlet no. 14 issued during the Ahmedabad strike in
    Desai, A Righteous Struggle, pp. 61-4.
  40. See Harijan, 13 April 1947, and 10 August 1947; and Dhawan, The Political Philosophy, p. 263.
  41. Young India, 16 February 1921.
  42. Young India, 18 November 1926.
  43. Ibid., but even here the sympathetic strike "must be taboo until it is proved that the men have exhausted all the legitimate means at their disposal”. Harijan, 11 August 1946.
  44. Quoted in Dhawan, The Political Philosophy, pp. 255-6.
Chapter Five: CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE AND SOCIAL CONFLICT
  1. Harijan, 20 July 1947.
  2. All conflicts that occur between members of a society are by definition social conflicts; here, however, discussion will be limited to non-legal, non-industrial conflicts where one of the parties at east is made up of more than a single individual, that is, the individual is pitted against the group, the individual against the state, the group against the group, and the group against the state.
  3. Young India, 14 January 1920.
  4. Harijan, 24 June 1939; Young India, 20 October 1927, 11 December 1924, and 14 January 1920.
  5. Thoreau, "Civil Disobedience", p. 259. See also Indian Opinion, 7 September 1907, and 14 September 1907.
  6. Gandhi refers to him as a "great satyagrahi' who “adopted satyagraha against his own people”, Indian Opinion, 4 April 1908.
  7. Kripalani, "The Case for Civil Disobedience...”, p. 136.
  8. See Woozley, "Socrates on Disobeying the Law", pp. 299-318.
  9. Apology 29D where Socrates states that even if the court were to discharge him on the condition that he gives up philosophical debate and inquiry he would disobey the order, and continues with the often quoted: "O men of Athens, I say to you ....either acquit me or not; but whichever you do, understand that I shall never alter my ways, not even if I have to die many times" (30C). Jowett (trans. and ed.), The Dialogues of Plato, p. 123.
  10. Socrates believed that a civilised state provided the best opportunity for personal growth and that a man who is free but chooses to live in a state gives an undertaking to obey the law (Crito 51D), and because the state's survival depends on obedience to the law so it must be obeyed even if unjust (50B). Jowett, The Dialogues of Plato, pp. 143-56.
  11. Young India, 23 March 1921.
  12. Indian Opinion, 22 August 1908.
  13. 13.Gandhi's ideal society was a stateless society of enlightened anarchy (Young India, 2 January 1930). He admitted that he was not sure what this Ramrajya (Kingdom of Heaven on earth) would be like exactly or even that it was more than a model to strive towards rather than a goal that could actually be achieved. Harijan, 5 May 1946.
  14. Kripalani, "The Case for Civil Disobedience", p. 139; and Young India, 15 July 1920.
  15. Quoted in Kripalani, ibid. This conception is further summed up by Gert's formula that everyone is always to obey a law "except when he could publicly advocate violating it". See Gert, The Moral Rules, pp. 96, 120.
  16. Kripalani, ibid., pp. 131-2; Young India, 5 January 1922.
  17. Kripalani, "The Case for Civil Disobedience", p. 140.
  18. Young India, 15 December 1921.
  19. "...immediately a person quarrels both with the rule and the sanction for its breach he ceases to be civil and lends himself to the precipitation of chaos and anarchy. A civil resister is... a philanthropist and a friend of the State.” Young India, 15 December 1921.
  20. Young India, 5 January 1922.
  21. Young India, 9 February 1922.
  22. Young India, 10 November 1921.
  23. Young India, 24 March 1920, and Harijan, 27 April 1940.
  24. Rudolph and Rudolph, The Modernity of Tradition, p. 184.
  25. See Prosch, "Limits to the Moral Claim of Civil Disobedience", p. 52.
  26. Gregg, The Power of Nonviolence, p. 43.
  27. Dhawan, The Political Philosophy, p. 105.
  28. See Harijan,14 March 1936.
  29. Lannoy, The Speaking Tree, p. 395.
  30. Shridharani, War Without Violence, p. 274.
  31. Ibid.
  32. Indian Opinion, 21 May 1910, and 1 December 1914. It is likely that Gandhi's thinking was
    influenced by the following incident recounted by Tolstoy regarding voluntary servitude. "A brave rural judge who, upon arriving at a village where the peasants hall been riotous and whither the army had been called out, undertook to settle the riot in the spirit of Nicholas I, all by himself, through his personal influence. He sent for several wagon-loads of switches, and, collecting all the peasants in a corn-kiln, locked himself up with them, and so intimidated the peasants with his shouts, that they, obeying him, began at his command to flog one another. They continued flogging one another until there was found a little fool who did not submit and shouted to his companions to stop flogging one another. It was only then that the flogging stopped, and the rural judge ran away from the kiln.It is this advice of the fool that men of the social order do not know how to follow, for they flog one another without cessation, and men teach this mutual flogging as the last word of human wisdom." Tolstoy, The Kingdom of God is Within You, pp. 223-4.
  33. Quoted in Shukla, Gandhi's View of Life, p. 138.
  34. Harijan, 30 March 1940.
  35. Naess, Gandhi and Group Conflict, p. 68.
  36. Young India,27 February 1930. It must, however, be borne in mind that these instructions were issued in the course of enormous campaigns of civil disobedience where a large percentage of those taking part were illiterate and had limited understanding of the tactics of the movement. See also Gujarati Navajivan, 4 May 1930; CWMG, vol. XLIII, pp. 379-82.
  37. Naess, Gandhi and the Nuclear Age, p. 60.
  38. Bondurant, Conquest of Violence, p. 40; see also Shridharani, War Without Violence, pp. 21-3.
  39. Shridharani adds "self-purification” here.
  40. Harijan, 28 July 1940.
  41. Gregg, A Discipline for Nonviolence, p. 13.
  42. See Gandhi, Constructive Programme: Its Meaning and Place in Gandhi. The Selected Works, vol. IV, pp. 333-74.
  43. Gregg, A Discipline for Nonviolence, p. 5.
  44. Gandhi, Hind Swaraj, p. 30.
  45. Gandhi,Constructive Programme, op. cit., pp. 369-70; Horsburgh, "Nonviolence and Impatience", p. 359; and Harijan, 25 March 1939.
  46. Gregg, A Discipline for Nonviolence, pp. 4-5; and Horsburgh, Mahatma Gandhi, p. 58.
  47. Gregg, A Discipline for Nonviolence, p. 4.
  48. Horsburgh, "Nonviolence and Impatience", pp. 359-60.
  49. Harijan, 31 March 1946, and Young India, 26 March 1930.
  50. Harijan, 25 August 1940.
  51. Ibid.
  52. See The Modern Review, October 1935; Harijan, 31 March 1946, and 25 August 1940; and Young India, 26 November 1931.
  53. Young India, 1 June 1921, and Harijan, 12 November 1938.
  54. Young India, 20 April 1920.
  55. Quoted in Bose, Selections from Gandhi, p. 89.
  56. Gandhi, Constructive Programme, p. 359.
Chapter Six: INTERNATIONAL CONFLICT
  1. Gandhi, An Autobiography, P. 290.
  2. Harijan, 26 November 1938, 21 October 1939, and 14 October 1939.
  3. Harijan, 15 March 1942. "Hitlerism will never be defeated by counter-Hitlerism. It can only breed superior Hitlerism raised to the nth degree." Harijan, 26 June 1940.
  4. See Boserup and Mack, War Without Weapons, pp. 21-36.
  5. Quoted in Friedman, "The Power of Violence….”, P. 319.
  6. Iklé, Every War Must End, p. 108.
  7. Ebert, "Preparations for Civilian Defence", pp. 152-3.
  8. See Skodvin, "Nonviolent Resistance During the German Occupation", pp. 136-53; Bennett, "The Resistance Against German Occupation of Denmark 1940-5”, pp. 154-72; Lanza del Vasto, Warriors of Peace, pp. 194-221; Gregg, The Power of Nonviolence, pp.3-39; and Sharp, ThePolitics of Nonviolent Action, pp.63-105.
  9. Horsburgh, Nonviolence and Aggression, p. 112.
  10. Harijan, 13 April 1940, and 12 November 1938; and The Modern Review, October 1935.
  11. See Roberts, "A Case for Civilian Defence". "The weakest State", claims Gandhi, "can render itself immune from attack if it learns the art of nonviolence." Harijan, 7 October 1939.
  12. Harijan, 12 November 1938.
  13. See Osgood, An Alternative to War or Surrender.
  14. See Crow, "A Study of Strategic Doctrines…", pp. 580-9; and Pilisuk and Skolnick, "Inducing Trust...”, pp. 121-33.
  15. Harijan, 12 November 1938.
  16. Frank, Sanity and Survival, p. 92.
  17. Harijan, 13 April 1940.
  18. Gandhi, Ashram Observations in Action, p. 58.
  19. Quoted in Bose, Selections From Gandhi, p. 75.
  20. Harijan, 13 April 1940.
  21. Ibid.
  22. Young India, 13 December 1931. For a criticism of the "living wall" method of resistance to an invading army see Roberts, "Civilian Defence Strategy", pp.238-40.
  23. Harijan, 28 January 1939.
  24. Harijan, 31 August 1947.
  25. Harijan, 6 July 1940.
  26. Harijan, 17 December 1938.
  27. Horsburgh, Nonviolence and Aggression, p. 124.
  28. Quoted in Pyarelal, Mahatma Gandhi, p. 815.
  29. Raman, What Does Gandhi Want? p. 99.
  30. Orwell, The Collected Essays, p. 529.
  31. Boserup and Mack, War Without Weapons, p. 90.
  32. Harijan, 28 July 1940.
  33. Bose, Studies in Gandhism, pp. 112-13.
  34. Harijan, 12 April 1942.
  35. Russell, Which Way to Peace? pp. 141-2.
  36. Bose, "Gandhian Approach to Social Conflict and War", p. 269.
  37. Quoted in Boserup and Mack, War Without Weapons, p. 134.
  38. See Pyarelal, Mahatma Gandhi, p. 632.
  39. Harijan, 15 October 1938.
  40. Douglass, The Non-Violent Cross, p. 242.
  41. Indian Opinion, 12 February 1910.
  42. Harijan, 28 January 1939.
  43. Gandhi, An Autobiography, p. 292; see also Harijan, 17 October 1936
  44. Young India, 31 December 1931.
  45. Bose, "Gandhian Approach to Social Conflict and War”, p. 262.
  46. Harijan, 16 March 1942.
  47. Frank, Sanity and Survival, p. 270.
  48. Horsburgh, Nonviolence and Aggression, p. 165.
Chapter Seven: THE POSITION OF THE INDIVIDUAL
  1. Young lndia, 13 November 1924; Harijan, 28 July 1946, and 1 February 1942; and Young India, 13 July 1921.
  2. Iyer, The Moral and Political Thought of Mahatma Gandhi, p. 117.
  3. Bondurant, Conquest of Violence, p. 118.
  4. Iyer, The Moral and Political Thought of Mahatma Gandhi, p. 173.
  5. Quoted in Pyarelal, Mahatma Gandhi, p. 137. This remark was made after Gandhi's "exhaustive study” of Marxian literature during his last detention in Poona during 1942-4. It was a reply to his secretary Pyarelal's request to get Gandhi to give his appraisal of various aspects of Marxist philosophy, after the former remarked that "Marx showed us that our ideologies, institutions and ethical standards, literature, art, customs, even religion, are a product of an economic environment”.
  6. Modern Review, October 1937.
  7. Harijan, 1 February 1942.
  8. Quoted in Vidyarathi, "Contributions of Mahatma Gandhi to Indian Social Thought”, p. 24.
  9. Durant, The Case for India, p. 115.
  10. Quoted in Tendulkar, Mahatma, vol. 3, p. 143.
  11. Bhattacharyya, Evolution of the Political Philosophy of Gandhi, pp. 492-3.
  12. Cooley, Human Nature and Social Order, pp. 38, 42.
  13. Ibid., p. 48.
  14. Mead, Mind, Self and Society, pp. 222-3.
  15. Quoted in Wallwork, Durkheim, pp. 63-4, 73, 75.
  16. Young India, 13 August 1925.
  17. Quoted in Coser, Masters of Sociological Thought, p. 184.
  18. Gerth and Wright Mills, From Max Weber, p. 73.
  19. See Plekhanov, The Role of the Individual in History; Fromm, Marx's Concept of Man; and Gould, Marx's Social Ontology.
  20. Marx and Engels, Selected Works, vol. 2, pp. 365-6.
  21. Berger, Invitation to Sociology, pp. 146, 149, 164, and 152-3.
  22. “I value individual freedom, but you must not forget that man is essentially a social being. He has risen to the present status by learning to adjust his individualism to the requirements of social progress ....willing submission to social restraint for the sake of the well-being of the whole society enriches both the individual and the society of which one is a member." Harijan, 27 May 1939.
  23. Prasad, Social Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi, p. 149.
  24. Quoted in Pyarelal, Mahatma Gandhi, pp. 140-1. This definition of the ideal type of socialism that he wanted India to strive for resulted from a discussion with Socialists which led to their demanding that Gandhi formulate a definitive summation of his views on the subject.
  25. Harijan, 21 January 1939.
  26. Harijan, 12 November 1938. M. N. Roy, the international communist, founder of Radical Humanism and long time arch Indian critic of Gandhi (who became quite pro-Gandhian in his old age; see Dalton, "Gandhi and Roy: the Interaction of ideologies in India"), summed up Gandhi's position admirably by claiming that “When a man really wants freedom and to live in a democratic society he may not be able to free the whole world…but he can to a large extent at least free himself bybehaving as a rational and moral being, and if he can do this, others around him can do the same, and these again will spread freedom by their example."Quoted in Tinker, "Nonviolence as a Political Strategy: Gandhi and Western Thinkers", p. 255.
  27. Gandhi, Hind Swaraj, p. 65. It has been suggested that Gandhi's emphasis upon the individual may have been, at least in part, a political ploy to overcome the troubling question of whether there was a pre-existing Indian nation that had been conquered by Britain, or whether it was yet to develop after the departure of the British bureaucracy. Rothermund claims that "Gandhi circumvented this by making the individual the focus of the nation as essentially consisting of individuals who feel that they belong to it. Further, by emphasising the spiritual unity of all individuals Gandhi could pre-suppose an immanent solidarity which was much stronger than an abstractly conceived national sovereignty.” Rothermund, “The Individual and Society in Gandhi's Political Thought”, p. 314.
  28. Rudolph and Rudolph, The Modernity of Tradition, p. 187.
  29. Harijan, 24 September 1938, 22 October 1938; Young India, 11 August 1920, and Harijan, 22 February 1942.
  30. For example, his defiance of caste harriers, championing the cause of untouchables and his belief in the emancipation of women.
  31. Maron, "The Non-Universality of Satyagraha", p. 280.
  32. Gandhi claimed that Tolstoy's book The Kingdom of God is Within You "overwhelmed me. It left an abiding impression on me. Before ....this book, all the other books given me ....seemed to pale into insignificance". Gandhi, An Autobiography, pp. 114-15; and that Ruskin's Unto This Last "marked the turning point in my life", ibid., PP. 248-50. See also Narasimhaiah (ed.), Gandhi and the West; and Harijan, 9 August 1942.
  33. In fact it appears that the influence of Christianity upon him was so great that South African friends were convinced that the young Gandhi's conversion was imminent. See Gandhi, An Autobiography, pp. 98--104, 112-15.
  34. Bondurant, Conquest of Violence, p. 144.
  35. Ibid, pp. 131,140. Shridharani adds that "My contact with the Western world has led me to think that, contrary to popular belief, Satyagraha, once consciously and deliberately adopted, has more fertile fields in which to grow and flourish in the West than in the Orient. Like war, Satyagraha demands public spirit, self-sacrifice, organization, endurance and discipline for its successful operation, and I have found these qualities displayed in Western communities more than in my own." Shridharani, War Without Violence, p. 12.
  36. Maron, "The Non-Universality of Satyagraha", p. 284.
Chapter Eight: AGGRESSION AND THE PROBLEM OF THE WILL
  1. See Hemming, Individual Morality, pp. 120-1; Storr, Human Aggression, p. 19; Thompson,
    Interpersonal Psycho-Analysis, p. 179; and Pontara, "The Concept of Violence", p. 19.
  2. Lorenz, "Ritualised Fighting", p. 49.
  3. Lorenz, On Aggression, pp. 206-9.
  4. Freud, "Letter to Albert Einstein", pp. 239-40, 245.
  5. Freud, Civilization and its Discontents, pp. 48-9.
  6. Rochlin, Man's Aggression, p. 100.
  7. See Sipes, "War, Sports and Aggression", pp. 64-86; Montagu, The Nature of Human Aggression, pp. 276-82; Berkowitz, "Experimental Investigations of Hostility Catharsis", pp. 1-7; and Berkowitz, "Simple Views of Aggression", pp. 50-2.
  8. Montagu's edited work (Man and Aggression) contains the views of several such critics. See especially the chapters by Barnett, "On the Hazards of Analogies", pp. 75-83; Helmuth, "Human Behaviour: Aggression", pp. 92-109; and Carrighar, "War is Not in Our Genes", pp. 122-35. See also Fromm, The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness, pp. 89-181.
  9. At present our society, through the mass media and accepted methods of child rearing etc. provides far moreviolent than nonviolent models. See Pillbeam, "An Idea we can Live Without", pp. 110-21; and Belschner, "Learningand Agrgession", pp. 61-103.
  10. Pillbeam, "An Idea we can Live Without", p. 120.
  11. Montagu, The Nature of Human Aggression, p. 295.
  12. Montagu (ed.), Man and Aggression, p. xviii.
  13. Montagu, The Nature of Human Aggression, p. 293.
  14. Gandhi, Ashram Observances in Action, p. 39. See also Young India, 1 October 1931.
  15. Young India, 21 January 1930; Gandhi, Hind Swaraj, p. 78. He goes on to say that when "Two brothers quarrel, one of them repents and re-awakens the love that was lying dormant in him; and the two again begin to live in peace; nobody takes note of this. But if the two brothers.., take up arms or go to law · . . their doings would be immediately noticed in the press . . . and would probably go down in history"
  16. Scott, Aggression, p. 127.
  17. Fromm, The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness, p. 40.
  18. Scott, Aggression, p. 127.
  19. Harijan, 28 January 1939, 14 May 1938, and 2 April 1938. Talking of the control of anger, Gandhi implies that it can be learned, stating, "it is a habit that everyone must cultivate and must succeed in forming by constant practice". Harijan, 11 May 1935.
  20. Lannoy, The Speaking Tree, p. 379.
  21. Berkowitz, "Aggression: Psychological Aspects", p. 168.
  22. Scott, Aggression, p. 128.
  23. A few weeks before his assassination he admitted that "Though many psychologists have
    recommended a study of psychology, I am sorry, I have not been able, for want of time, to study the subject." Harijan, 23 November 1947.
  24. See Rochlin, Man's Aggression, pp. 216, 230, 244; Ansbacher and Ansbacher (eds.), The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler, pp. 367-73; May, Power and Innocence, p. 23; Toch, Violent Men, p. 269; and Gray, On Understanding Violence, p. 29.
  25. Harijan, 5 September 1936.
  26. Gunn, Violence in Human Society, p. 150.
  27. Harijan, 5 November 1938.
  28. Eisenberg, "The Human Nature..., p. 56.
  29. See Shukla, Conversations of Gandhiji, p. 28; Gandhi, All Men are Brothers, p. 174; Harijan,
    7 June 1942; Gandhi, Satyagraha in South Africa, p 130; Gandhi, An Autobiography, p. 21; Harijan, 6 May 1939; Tendulkar, Mahatma, vol. 8, p. 226; and Ganguli, Gandhi's Social Philosophy, p. 111.
  30. Horowitz, War and Peace in Contemporary Social and Philosophical Theory, p. 83. This is further implied by Gandhi when he says: 'A moral act must be our own act; it must spring from our own will." Gandhi, Ethical Religion in The Selected Works, vol. IV, pp. 1-35, at p. 11.
  31. Bondurant, Conquest of Violence, p. 31.
  32. O'Connor, Free Will, p. 122.
  33. Davis, The Free Will Question, p. 74.
  34. Schlick, "When is Man Responsible?" p. 52.
  35. Hospers, "Free Will and Psychoanalysis", p. 82.
  36. Freud, "The psychopathology of Everyday Life", p. 254.
  37. Skinner, Science and Human Behaviour, p. 438. Many geneticists take as strong a determinist position as do the behaviourists. Some, like Darlington argue along parallel lines putting heredity in the place of environmental conditioning, see Darlington, The Facts of Life.
  38. Skinner, Beyond Freedom and Dignity, pp. 41, 193, 196
  39. Ibid., p. 101.
  40. Ibid.
  41. Fromm, The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness, pp. 70-1.
  42. Farter, The Freedom of the Will, p. 297.
  43. Ibid., p. 300. Phaeton was the son of the Greek sun god Helios whose infamously bad driving of the sun chariot set the sky on fire.
  44. The determinists here argue that punishment is valid because it will be a conditioning factor, determining future actions.
  45. O'Connor, Free Will, p. 82.
  46. Lamont, Freedom of Choice Affirmed, p. 17.
  47. Ibid., p. 154.
  48. Campbell, "Is 'Free Will' a Pseudo Problem?, pp. 459-40.
  49. Campbell, In Defense of Free Will, p. 41.
  50. Sidgwick, Methods of Ethics, pp. 55-6.
  51. Berm and Peters, "Human Action and the Limitations of Causal Explanations', p. 96.
  52. Davis, The Free Will Question, p. 58.
  53. Benn and Peters, "Human Action and...", p. 97.
  54. Davis, The Free Will Question, p. 33.
  55. Sartre, "The Humanism of Existentialism~, p. 57.
  56. Sartre, Being and Nothingness, pp. 553, 440-1.
  57. Sartre, "The Humanism of Existentialism", pp. 37--8.
  58. Sartre, Being and Nothingness, p. 439.
  59. Macquarrie, Existentialism, p. 185.
  60. Iyer, The Moral and Political Thought of Mahatma Gandhi, pp. 74, 78.
  61. Letters to J. C. Kumarappa, dated 16 November 1930 and 31 October 1930, CWMG vol. X. LIV, pp. 312, 264.
  62. Iyer, The Moral and Political Thought of Mahatma Gandhi, p. 78.
  63. Letter to P. C. Ray, dated 9 September 1918, CWMG vol. XV, pp. 43-44.
  64. Green, "Foreword' to Selg (ed.), The Making of Human Aggression, p. 3.
Chapter Nine: CONCLUSION: A GANDHIAN ETHICS
  1. "Salvation" in the sense of liberation from the cycle of birth, death and rebirth by achieving
    perfection.
  2. Naess, Gandhi and the Nuclear Age, p. 28.
  3. Gandhi, An Autobiography, p. xii.
  4. See Gregg, The Power of Nonviolence, pp. 8%90; and Sharp, The Politics of Nonviolent Action, pp. 731-3.
  5. Naess, Gandhi and the Nuclear Age, p. 78.
  6. Harijan, 14 March 1936.
  7. See Young India, 27 August 1925, and 31 December 1931.
  8. Indian Opinion, 8 February 1908.
  9. Iyer, The Moral and Political Thought of Mahatma Gandhi, p. 302.
  10. 10.Barnes, An Existentialist Ethics, p. 9. Gandhi explained man's ability to do this when he noted: "Man has two windows to his mind: through one he can see his own self as it is; through the other he can see what it ought to be." Gandhi, Ethical Religion in The Selected Works, vol. IV, pp. 1-35, at p. 5.
  11. Gandhi, ibid., p. 32, 33, 8, and 24.
  12. Ibid., p. 22.
  13. Wilson, Sociobiology, p. 117.
  14. See Chaitanya, Gandhi's Quest of Being in Becoming, p. 14.
  15. Gandhi, Ethical Religion in The Selected Works, p. 7; and Harijan, 1 June 1935.
  16. Young India, 9 December 1926. Gandhi adds that the doctrine of utilitarianism "means in its
    nakedness that in order to achieve the supposed good of 51 per cent the interest of 49 percent may be, or rather, should be sacrificed. It is a heartless doctrine and has done harm to humanity". Quoted in Desai, The Diary, p. 149.
  17. Gert, The Moral Rules, p. 134.
  18. Gandhi, Ethical Religion in The Selected Works, p. 34.
  19. Taylor, Good and Evil, p. 255. Perhaps this view is bad faith applied to problems too complex to be easily analysed. It is however important in understanding the basis of satyagraha. Ernest Jones believes that whenever an individual considers a given (mental) process as being too obvious to permit of any investigation into its origin, and shows resistance to such an investigation, we are right in suspecting that the actual origin is concealed from him--almost certainly on account of its unacceptable nature." Quoted in Waddington, The Ethical Animal, p. 185.
  20. Gandhi explained to Will Durant that "the glimpse of the 'Divine essence' is impossible without full development of the moral sense". Durant, On the Meaning of Life, p. 84.
  21. Young India, 4 December 1924.
  22. Adapted from Naess, Gandhi and the Nuclear Age, p. 28-33.
  23. Frankena, Ethics, p. 69.
  24. Young India, 22 November 1928; Bondurant, "The Search for a Theory of Conflict", p. 22; and
    Young India, 9 December 1922.
  25. Harijan, 14 March 1936, and 24 February 1946.
  26. See Young India, 3 November 1927.
  27. Harijan, 20 May 1939; and see Horsburgh, Nonviolence and Aggression, p. 63.
  28. Rogers, On Becoming a Person, pp. 344, 346.
  29. Young India, 5 March 1931; and Gandhi, The Law of Love, p. 3.
  30. Young India, 13 .August 1925.
  31. Woodcock, Gandhi, p. 6.
  32. Basham, "Foreword" to Ray (ed.) Gandhi, India and the World, p. 13.
  33. Bose, My Days with Gandhi, p. 97.
  34. Harijan, 29 April 1939.
  35. Gandhi, Satyagraha in South Africa, p. 105; and Hindustan Standard, 6 August 1944.
  36. Fischer, "Miscellaneous Notes...", p. 61.